Hiv Aids In Nigeria Health And Social Care Essay

Hiv Aids In Nigeria Health And Social Care Essay Nigeria, with a population of 154.7 million (World Bank, 2009) is the most populous country in Africa and represents about 47% of the West African population (World Bank, 2010). The country is divided into six geo-political zones; North-West, North-East and North-Central as well as South-West, South-East and South-South (World Bank, 2010). Being the biggest oil exporter in Africa and with the largest natural gas reserves in the continent (World Bank, 2010), one would think that (economically and in terms of human development) the country would be up in the ladder with the prosperous countries of the world. But one would be wrong. The country is classified as lower middle income with a GNI per capita, Atlas method of $1,170 (World Bank, 2009). The country ranks 158 out a possible 182 countries on the human development index table (UNDP, 2009). Life expectancy at birth is 48 years for men and 50 years for women (WHO, 2009), adult literacy rate is 60% (World Bank, 2008), urban population is 46% (World Bank, 2009) which indicates that the majority live in rural areas, while the total fertility rate (per woman) is 5.5 (WHO, 2009). In terms of health indicators, the country does not fare any better. With an infant mortality rate of 85.5 per 1000 live births, a maternal mortality ratio of 1,100 per 100,000 live births and an under 5 mortality rate of 186 per 1000 live births (regional average- 142 per 1000 live births) (WHO, 2008), it will be safe to say that the country can and should do better. Table 1 (World Bank, 2009) is an overview of quick facts on Nigeria Year 2009 Population, Total (millions) 154.7 Population growth (annual %) 2.3 GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US $) 1,170 Life expectancy at birth, total (years) 47.9 Mortality rate, infants (per 1000 live births) 85.8 Contraceptive prevalence (% of women ages 15-49) 15 Table 1. Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators, Nigeria: Quick facts, 2009 With economic and social indices poor in the worlds poorest countries, world leaders met in September 2000 under the canopy of the United Nations to set a roadmap to reduce extreme poverty with the aim of improving human and economic development through a global partnership (UN millennium declaration, 2000). Thus eight goals with 21 targets and 60 measurable indicators were set (UN, 2000). Focussing on all the millennium development goals (MDGs) is beyond the scope of this paper. This paper aims to focus on one health problem that is a priority of the Nigerian nation. Therefore in the next few pages, you will be taken on a journey on the burden of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in Nigeria, its current status and recent trends, issues of equity and spread in relation to income, gender and location (residence), national and sub-national policies to address the problems posed by HIV/AIDS, challenges to addressing these problems as well as recommendations for an improved strategic response. GENERAL BACKGROUND/Current status and recent trends HIV was first discovered in Nigeria in 1986 (DHS, 2008). By 1991, the prevalence rate was reported as 1.8% (DHS, 2008). The prevalence rate then progressively rose to 4.5% in 1996 and then 5.5% in 2001 (National HIV/AIDS prevention plan, 2007-9). However the prevalence rate dropped to 5% in 2003 and 4.4% in 2005 (National HIV/AIDS prevention plan, 2007-9). Notwithstanding the drop and as a consequence of Nigerias huge population, the disease has continued to pile an economic and health misery on the country as 2.86 million people had been infected by 2005 (IBBSS, 2008). Currently, the HIV prevalence rate is 4.6% (NACA, 2009). Estimated number of people living with HIV/AIDS is 2.98 million, the annual HIV positive births is 56,681, while annual AIDS deaths is 192,000 with females bearing more of the death burden at 105,822 deaths to 86,178 deaths for males (NACA, 2009). The impact of the disease on children is particularly worrisome as evidenced by the annual HIV positive births. It gets worse. According to data released by the Federal Ministry of Health in 2009, 2,175,760 children have been orphaned due to factors relating to HIV/AIDS (FOMH, 2009). Females constitute almost three-fifths (58.3%) of the infected persons in Nigeria (National HIV response Analysis, 2009). Also worthy of mention is the fact that young adults are disproportionately affected with a sero-prevalence of 5.6% in the 25-29 age-group, the highest of any age group (National HIV response Analysis, 2009). As this is part of the productive age group of any country (UNAIDS, 2008), the impact on socio economic development can only be imagined. The millennium development goal 6, target 6 AB is to halt by 2010 and begin to reverse by 2015 the spread of HIV/AIDS and to achieve universal access to treatment for all those who need it by 2010 (UNDP, 2010). The indicators to measure these include: HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24, condom use at last high risk sex, proportion of population aged 15-24 with comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS, ratio of school attendance of orphans to non orphans and the proportion of population with advanced HIV with access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) (UNDP, 2010). The demographic health survey (DHS) implemented by the Nigerian population commission (NPC) and supported and funded by PEPFAR, USAID and UNFPA was carried out in 2008 (DHS, 2008). It showed that 23% of women and 36% of men in Nigeria have what is a comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS (DHS, 2008). Comprehensive knowledge is considered to be the knowledge that condom use and faithfulness to one partner can prevent HIV infection, knowing that a healthy appearance does not rule out HIV and the rejection of two commonest myths that HIV can be transmitted through voodoo or mosquito bites (DHS, 2008). Using the above criteria as the definition of comprehensive knowledge is a bit thin. A better term would be basic knowledge as the popular acronym ABC (abstinence, be faithful and condom use) constitutes the basics of HIV prevention. The percentage of adults and children with advanced HIV with access to treatment is 32% (DHS, 2008). As the target is universal access to treatment, this shows c learly that Nigeria is lagging behind on treatment despite its preponderance over prevention (Idoko, 2010). The prevalence of HIV among pregnant women between ages 15 and 24 in Nigeria has decreased from 5.8% in 2001 and 2002 to 5.0% in 2003 and 2004 and has steadied at 4.3% in 2005 through 2007 (NACA, ME unit, 2007). The percentage of the population who used condom at last high risk sex has markedly increased from 43.9% in 2003 to 63.8% in 2007 (NACA, ME unit, 2007) while the Federal Ministry of Health reported in 2009 that the number of children orphaned by AIDS increased from 1.97 million in 2007 to 2.18 million in 2009. The ratio of school attendance of orphans to non orphans is said to be 0.86:1 (FMOH, 2009). Prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV constitutes a huge gap in HIV prevention in Nigeria (Idoko, 2010). With only 12.5% of pregnant women having access to PMTCT services, Nigeria represents 30% of the global gap of PMTCT of HIV (Idoko. 2010). The progress Nigeria has made in her fight against HIV/AIDS is illustrated in table 2 which compares estimates and data compiled by NACA from 2000 through 2007. It shows a mixed bag of results as the improvements made have either been slow or dawdling (Mid- point assessment, 2010). Target 7: Have halted and begun to reverse the spread of HIVAIDS (UN Millennium Declaration, 2000) Indicators 1990 2000*a 2001 2002*b 2003 2004*c 2005 2006*d 2007*d 2008 2015 Progress towards target HIV prevalence among 15-24 year old pregnant women (%) 5.4 5.8 5.8 5.0 5.0 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.2 To be halted Improving but slowly % of young people aged 15-24 who both correctly identify ways to preventing the sexual transmission of HIV and who reject major misconceptions about HIV transmission 18.3 18.3 25.9 25.9 25.9 NA 100 Improving but slowly % of young people aged 15-24 reporting the use of a condom during sexual intercourse with a non regular sexual partner 43.9 43.9 63.8 63.8 63.8 NA 100 Improving Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non orphans aged 10-14 years NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1.2 Number of children orphaned by AIDS (millions) 1.8 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 worsening A, b, c, d are for 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005. NA- not available Table 2. Source: MDG report, 2010 EQUITY Empowering women and girls has a plethora of positive effects on all MDGs (UNDP, 2010). HIV/AIDS is no exception. Despite the fact that HIV/AIDS knows no gender, clear disparities are visible in the way men and women with HIV/AIDS are responded to and cared for (Mbonu, et al, 2010). The demographic health survey (DHS) carried out in 2008 revealed disparities based on gender, ethnicity, location and income quintile in the knowledge of HIV/AIDS, attitudes towards HIV/AIDS and coverage of testing (DHS, 2008). Table 3 (DHS, 2008) shows a variation in the knowledge of HIV/AIDS according to age, residence, ethnicity, level of education and income (DHS, 2008). Of note is the trend that reveals that HIV awareness while almost universal in urban areas (98% and 95% among men and women respectively), is lower among rural men and women at 91% and 84% respectively (DHS, 2008). Awareness of HIV/AIDS was also found to be lower in the Northern region compared to the South, being lowest in women of North-central origin (76%) and men of North-eastern origin (88%)(DHS, 2008). Background characteristics Women Men Age in years 15-24 87.1 91.4 15-19 85.3 88.3 20-24 89.1 94.8 25-29 89.8 94.6 30-39 89.4 94.7 40-49 87.2 94.4 Marital Status Never married 92.9 93.4 Ever had sex 96.5 98.0 Never had sex 90.0 89.0 Married/living together 86.4 93.6 Divorced/separated/widowed 91.3 92.0 Residence Urban 95.3 97.9 Rural 84.3 90.8 Zone North central 75.9 90.7 North east 81.4 87.8 North west 87.8 90.9 South east 97.1 96.4 South South 92.0 96.1 South west 93.4 97.8 Education No education 76.6 80.7 Primary 90.2 92.4 Secondary 96.0 97.1 More than secondary 99.3 99.7 Wealth quintile Lowest 75.5 83.5 Second 81.7 89.9 Middle 88.8 93.8 Fourth 94.5 97.0 Highest 97.6 98.9 Table 3. Source: Nigeria DHS, 2008 In Nigeria, there are clear differences in the proportion of the population with the knowledge of preventive measures of HIV by age, gender, ethnicity and income quintile (DHS, 2008). Overall women were found to be more knowledgeable in urban areas than in rural areas (DHS, 2008). The same trend was also found to apply for men. Most worrying is the fact that those in the lowest wealth quintile have a rather poor knowledge of HIV prevention measures with only 31.3% of women and 53.2% of men knowing that using condoms at every sexual encounter can protect them from contracting HIV (DHS, 2008). The DHS, 2008 also found that respondents in urban areas are more likely to have a comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS compared to rural areas (DHS, 2008). This proportion rises with an increasing level of education and income among both men and women (DHS, 2008). The DHS, 2008 exposed a stratum of inequities in terms of coverage of HIV testing services (DHS, 2008). Living in urban areas increases ones chances of knowing where to test for HIV with 66% of women and 78% of men knowing where to test for HIV compared to 39% for women and 57% for men in rural areas (DHS, 2008). Zonal disparities are also evident as women and men in the North-east are least likely to know where to test for HIV (27% for women and 54% for men) (DHS, 2008). Worryingly however, of the people who were tested for HIV in the 12 months preceding the survey, only 7% of men and 7% of women came back for the results (DHS, 2008). Further studies might be required to find out why this is the case. As stated earlier in this paper, there is a huge gap in PMTCT services in Nigeria. The DHS, 2008 made known that only 24% of women who gave birth in the 2 years preceding the DHS received HIV counselling (DHS, 2008). Only 16% were offered and accepted HIV tests during ANC and received the results (DHS, 2008) while only 13% were counselled, offered and accepted HIV tests and received the results. The women most likely to fall in the latter group were those who live in urban areas (35%), those from the south east ethnic origin (35%) and those with more than secondary education (54%) (DHS, 2008). All of these imply that the HIV/AIDS challenge in Nigeria, as well the response to these challenges are in more ways than one determined by equity issues in relation to gender, poverty and location/residence. NATIONAL AND SUB NATIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES After the HIV was first reported in Nigeria in 1986 (National HIV response analysis, 2009), the response was essentially health sector oriented to limit its spread (National HIV response analysis, 2009). However with the increasing spread of the epidemic and the advent of democracy in 1999, the focus shifted from a health sector based response to a multi-sectoral one (Country progress report, 2010). This led to the establishment of the National Action Committee on HIV/AIDS to coordinate the multi-sectoral response (National HIV response analysis, 2009). To further strengthen its central coordinating role and the national response, this committee was transformed in 2007 by an act of the national assembly into full agency status, reporting directly to the presidency (National HIV response analysis, 2009). It became the National agency for the control of HIV/AIDS (NACA). At the sub-national level, the coordination is done at each of the 36 states by the state action committee on HIV/AIDS (SACA) and at each of the 774 local governments by the local government action committee on HIV/AIDS (LACA) (National HIV response analysis, 2009). The plan was for the SACAs (just as NACA) to transform into full agencies to strengthen their contribution to the national response (NACA, 2009). However, only 20 states have transformed into full agencies (National response analysis, 2009). Weak political commitment as well as a lack of ownership at the state level has however continued to be identified as limiting factors for national HIV response (Idoko, 2009). Even the state committees that have transformed into full agencies have had problems ranging from poor funding to poor capacity with most of them working without constituted boards (Idoko, 2009). NACA with the collaboration of relevant stakeholders developed an interim action plan in 2001, the HIV/AIDS emergency action plan (HEAP), a plan that focussed mainly on prevention, care and support (Country progress report, 2010). The need for a more comprehensive plan that includes treatment led to the development of the National strategic framework (NSF) in 2005. The NSF is the common framework for HIV/AIDS response in Nigeria (National HIV response analysis, 2009). All states also have state strategic plans (SSPs) sourced from the NSF and taking into account their peculiarities (Country progress report, 2007). Nigeria developed her roadmap for universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support in 2006 (Country progress report, 2010). This has been incorporated into the NSF and SSPs (Country progress report, 2010). The country has also developed key policy documents which factored in the development of the NSF including the National Workplace Policy on HIV/AIDS in 2005 to guide HIV programs in the workplace, the National Reproductive Health Policy, the National Gender Policy that ensures gender mainstreaming in the national response, the National Policy on Orphans and Vulnerable children (OVC), to guide OVC activities in the national plan, the National Policy on Injection Safety and Healthcare waste management as well as the National Prevention Plan and National HIV/AIDS Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) strategy to promote prevention and behavioural change activities (Country progress report, 2010). With NACA as the central coordinating body, the NSF as the common strategic framework, there was the need to have a harmonized Monitoring and Evaluation (ME) framework in line with the three ones principle (UNAIDS, 2004). This berthed the Nigerian National Response Information Management System (NNRIMS) with the development of the National ME operational plan, 2007-2010 (National HIV response analysis, 2009). Funding for HIV/AIDS programs in Nigeria is both internal and external (Country progress report, 2008). Internal funding is from the national, state and local government budgets, which has substantially increased as a result of the debt relief gain (DRG). There is also some funding from the private sector. However, bureaucratic bottlenecks in the release of funds, continues to be identified as one of the key problems militating against the response performance at state and local government levels (Idoko, 2009). Figure 1 (National response analysis, 2009) shows the organogram, the institutional structural design of the countrys national response and how it links with sub-national and other non state actors. NACA is at the apex of the response architecture and from this vantage point provides political, program and technical leadership while linking with state and non state actors (National HIV response analysis, 2009). In the same fashion, state and local responses are led by SACAs and LACAs. Together these bodies interface with line ministries, the private sector, civil and human rights groups including faith based organisations and local and international development partners (National HIV response analysis, 2009). NACA STATE ACTORS NON-STATE ACTORS STATES HEALTH SECTOR, LINE MINISTRIES PRIVATE SECTOR LOCALINT. DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS CSOs CONSTITUENTS AND COMMUNITIES CONSTITUENTS AND COMMUNITIES COMMUNITIES SACAs, LACAs, LINE MINISTRIES CSO, PRIVATE SECTOR, DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS COMMUNITIES AND CONSTITUENTS COMMUNITIES AND CONSTITUENTS Figure 1. (Source: National HIV Response Analysis, 2009) In addition to the entrenchment of the three ones principle, the development of the National Strategic Framework and the correct implementation of all other policy documents by NACA, other specific strategies to achieving Goal 6 of the MDGs in relation to HIV/AIDS in Nigeria include the local production of condoms and ARVs to drive down cost, increasing the number of HCT and ART sites as well as making them free and accessible, providing social security for AIDS orphans and children with HIV/AIDS, strengthening BCC programs, broadening prevention efforts in line with the National prevention plan, getting the MOHs to dedicate more funds to HIV/AIDS at the state and local levels, increased advocacy to states and LGs to drive SACAs and LACAs, as well as support for research on HIV/AIDS (MDG Mid-point Assessment, 2000-7). CHALLENGES While significant progress has been recorded as earlier detailed, significant challenges also exist (National HIV response analysis, 2009). There is an imbalance in the attention given to prevention as opposed to treatment as the focus has been more on treatment than prevention (Shehu, 2007). This is a surprising misplacement of priorities since at least 95% of Nigerians are HIV negative thus requiring concrete preventive measures to make them remain so (Shehu, 2007). By 2007, only 3% of health facilities in Nigeria provided HCT services (WHO, UNAIDS UNICEF, 2008). In 2008, it was estimated that there was only one HCT facility to 80,000 Nigerians (WHO, UNAIDS UNICEF, 2009). This might be related to suggestions that facilities providing HIV testing in Nigeria do not follow international standards about ethics and confidentiality (Physicians for Human Rights, 2006). Also, condom distribution and promotion has been hampered by poor resources and political interference (AVERT, 2010). B etween 2000 and 2005, the average number of condoms distributed in Nigeria by donors was approximately 5.9 per man per year (UNFPA, 2005) while in a 2002 survey, only 25% of health facilities had any condoms (Human Rights Watch, 2004). In 2006, the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON) started to restrict condom advertisements that might encourage indecency (UN Integrated Regional Information Networks, 2006). Though APCON may have softened her stand, the view that condom advertisements promote indecency has to be balanced with the clear dangers posed by unprotected sex as a main driver of the spread of HIV/AIDS. Other challenges include the inadequate and inequitable distribution of drugs, the high prevalence of stigma and discrimination, violation of the human rights of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), poor funding and low capacity at all levels but especially at the sub-national levels, inadequate monitoring of the quality of intervention, insufficient and inadequate responsive data bases, challenges in program coordination (National HIV response analysis, 2009) as well as the slow involvement of civil society and private sector groups in HIV/AIDS planning and budgeting (Country Midpoint assessment, 2000-7). Poor accessibility and uptake of intervention services is a major problem affecting the national response (Coker, 2009). An example of that is in PMTCT (Coker, 2009). The National AIDS and STD control program (NASCP) reported uptake of PMTCT nationally as 11% as of July 2009 (Coker, 2009). While there were 908 functional HCT sites scattered across the country as at 2007 (NACA, 2007), there appears to be little awareness of the location of these sites (DHS, 2008), hence poor access especially at the community and hard to reach areas (National HIV response analysis, 2009). The joint United Nations program on HIV/AIDS identified four major challenges of the HIV/AIDS response in Nigeria (UNAIDS, 2009). They include but not limited to: challenges due to empowerment of National leadership and ownership, challenges of alignment and harmonization, reform challenges for a more multi-sectoral response, and challenges with accountability and oversight (Country Midpoint assessment, 2000-7). NACAs organisational effectiveness is still considerably weak with capacity constraints overwhelming at state and local government levels (National HIV response analysis, 2009). There also is a disparity in programs and coordination systems at all levels due to poor dissemination and use of policy instruments (National HIN response analysis, 2009). In terms of ownership and alignment, there is an excessive fragmentation of donor activities, poor collaboration between NACA-donor while donor approaches are not always aligned with national priorities thereby undermining ownershi p (National HIV response analysis, 2009). This may be due to the fact that the majority of funding for HIV programs is donor driven (HERFON, 2007). For instance, Nigeria contributes an only an estimated 5% of the funds for antiretroviral therapy programmes (HERFON, 2007). While this may be due to a country desire to concentrate more and rightly so on prevention, it may also explain why there is a tilt towards treatment. The 2010 country progress report while acknowledging the successes and achievements of the HIV/AIDS response in Nigeria also identified key challenges that needed to be addressed. They include: incommensurate funding of the prevention, treatment, care and support programs compared to the complexity of the epidemic, overdependence on donor support, weak political and financial support especially at states and local governments, the lack of a National HIV/AIDS research agenda, poor coverage and quality of PMTCT, limited knowledge of the drivers of the epidemic, low risk perception at policy making and community levels, inadequate supportive legislation to guide and boost the national and state response, inadequate implementation of the National ME system, the overwhelming focus on intervention monitoring rather than impact evaluation, as well as poverty and gender equality (Country progress report, 2010). Above all, there is the challenge of maintaining current levels and scaling up a sustainable HIV/AIDS response that will tackle demand challenges like increasing new infections and declining livelihoods due to poverty, and supply challenges like inadequate infrastructure, low motivation of health workers and brain drain, governance challenges like poor health, communications and power infrastructure, inadequate health financing, inadequate logistics and procurement as well as declining human resources (Ogunlayi, et al, 2007). The requirement for this is a health systems strengthening approach with a target of improving the health supply chain efficiency and effectiveness, training more people with adequate incentives to man and manage those systems, developing policies that will support national and sub-national sustainability plans including the provision of physical infrastructure as well as mobilizing a responsible, responsive and equitable health financing (National HIV response analysis, 2009). CONCLUSIONS That Nigeria has made positive strides in her fight against HIV/AIDS is not in doubt. What is in doubt is if the current levels can be maintained and scaled up. It is instructive that of the 7 point agenda for action at the inception of the current political leadership, there was no health component. This paper will bring to the front burner the need for greater political commitment from the top on health matters in general and the HIV/AIDS issue in particular. As the evidence in this paper has shown, the impact of HIV/AIDS has been enormous particularly on women and children. While gender has been mainstreamed into the national response in Nigeria (National response analysis, 2009), there is clearly still a lot more to be done. It is particularly sad that Nigeria records annual HIV-positive births of 56,681. There is the need for all stakeholders to speak with one voice and declare this trend as unacceptable. And indeed it is. It should be unacceptable for pure and innocent neonates, infants and children to bear the brunt of the epidemic in a scale as seen in Nigeria. This paper strongly advocates the scale up of both the access and quality of all HIV/AIDS services including but not limited to HCT, PMTCT as well as other prevention, treatment, care and support services and especially for those disadvantaged due to location, income or gender. This paper will bring to the fore the poor state of the response at the state and local government levels. There is the need to strengthen technical, financial and management capacity not just at NACA but at the SACAs and LACAs (National HIV response analysis, 2009). There is a greater need for Prevention programs to be at the heart of the HIV/AIDS response. This need is reinforced (as shown in page 5) by the declining difference in the proportion of people with an awareness of HIV/AIDS compared to those with a comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS (DHS, 2008). There is a further decline in the proportion of the latter group with the awareness of where to get tested (DHS, 2008). While treatment, care and support programs are indispensable, there is the need for a scale up of prevention programs to cater to the over 95% of the population that are currently HIV negative. While donors should be praised for the huge financial and human resources they have committed to the HIV/AIDS response, there is the need for country ownership as well as the alignment and harmonization of donor priorities in line with country plans and strategies. Health systems strengthening needs to be accelerated for a health systems response that is based on improved infrastructure for an integrated package of care, a functional forecasting system based on verified data, built capacity of human resources, adequate health financing and a strong leadership (Country progress report, 2010). Finally, the MDGs and its targets for HIV/AIDS should not be seen as a destination but a process. A process that emphasizes urgency, quality and equity, and involves the development of a comprehensive package of prevention, treatment, care and support relevant to the country (UNAIDS, 2006).

Running The British Economy Essay examples -- Economics Macroeconomics

Running The British Economy Introduction ============ A study of economics in terms of whole systems especially with reference to general levels of output and income and to the interrelations among sectors of the economy is called macroeconomics. Macroeconomics is concerned with the behavior of the economy as a whole—with booms and recessions, the economy’s total output of goods and services and the growth of output, the rates of inflation and unemployment, the balance of payments, and exchange rates. Macroeconomics deals with the increase in output and employment over long period of time—that is economic growth—and with the short-run fluctuations that constitutes the business cycle. Macroeconomics focuses on the economic behavior and policies that effect consumption and investment, trade balance, the determinants of changes in wages and prices, monetary and fiscal policies, the money stock, the federal budget, interest rates, and national debt. In brief, macroeconomics deals with the major economic issues and problems of the day. In this software of running the British economy we will observe different outcomes in the British Economy by changing these four variables. They are 1. Government Expenditure 2. Tax Rate 3. Value Added Tax (VAT) 4. Monetary Cash Flow Through this assignment I have given a chance to run the British Economy for five years. In order to understand this assignment we first have to understand what these above four variables are? Explanation Government Expenditure ====================== It covers what so ever government spends in purchasing goods and services in order to perform their factions properly. This includes spending on such items such as defense e... ...es, which are 6.79. And by this all economy get a boast. People started getting better off and government got success keeping the interest of investor in economy. Balance to payment went down to 5, which is not bad. Bibliography Books 1. Diulio, Eugene A. Theory and Problems of Macroeconomic Theory. London. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. 1974. 2. Fischer, Stanley. Dornubusch, Rudiger. Macroeconomics. USA. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. 1990. 3. Glahe, Fred R. Macroeconomics Theory and Practice. USA. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc. 1992. Websites 1. http://star2.vub.ac.be/~dvermeir/mirrors/ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu/econ/ISLM/ISLM.html Accesses on: 15/12/2004 2. http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scro0519/macro.pdf Accessed on: 15/12/2004 3. http://www.wabash.edu/dept/economics/Faculty%20Work/ISLM.pdf Accessed on: 16/12/2004

Paulo Freire and Education Essay

Paulo Freire said that education can be construed as an exercise of domination if it manipulates the naivete and innocence of the students. This kind of pedagogy tends to use authority heavily so that the students would learn to accept such authority without challenging it. They become subservient to the interests of the authorities who have the power over the educational system. Freire’s (49) idea is that education can be used, and has been used by oppressors to enforce their rule over their subjects. Freire develops his ideas by looking at the history of colonization, particularly the relationship of the colonizers and the colonies and how the educational system was established in the colonies. Understanding the context of Brazil as a former colony is crucial in understanding the development of Freire’s ideas. Freire described the banking approach to education, treating students as empty bank accounts that will have to be filled with the ideas fed to it by the teachers. see more:role of teacher in social change Freire considers this approach as dehumanizing to both the teachers and the learners. Instead of the banking approach, the author advocated for a world-mediated and mutual approach to learning. This means that individuals can be educated through their interactions with each other and with the world. In this process, people are considered incomplete and they can strive to completeness through education (Freire 80). For Freire, education is a tool for shaping more than just the person but the whole society as well. This process is called conscientization. Freire’s approach to education echoes much of the ideas of critical theorists who believe, together with Marx that theory and education have to be used to change society for the better . Freire’s Approach to Education and Teaching Freire’s approach to education is not didactic. Instead of focusing only on rote learning and taking what the teachers say at face value, he puts a primer on interaction and on the experiences of the learners. For a teacher to become effective, he or she has to be integrated into the worldview of the students and not disconnected from it. Freire effectively highlighted the importance of the role of the teacher and how the teacher should present help the student go through the learning process. Freire’s approach helps teachers vary their teaching methods from being simply dispensers and givers of information to that of a facilitator and mediator in the learning process of the student. This type of pedagogy works best for teaching people who already have knowledge about the world and how who have an understanding about their role in it. For younger learners, however, such approach may not be very effective because of their lack of experiences. Furthermore, the worldview of younger students is still being formed. This means therefore that younger learners would still need to depend on the authorities in their lives for their early learning and education. Although at first, it would seem that the banking approach would be at work in this process. Yet, the educational approach should not be divorced from the overall cultural context and social realities of the society where the learners belong to. This not mean, however that education should degenerate to rote learning, memorization and mimicking of the ideas of the educators (Ladson-Billings 163). The Purpose of Education, Society and Political Power Freire recognized the power of education in creating change in the society. For him, education is not only about learning but also a power that can be used for social change. Therefore it is not only a tool of oppression; it can also work for the empowerment of disenfranchised members of the society. Education can be used effectively for helping people learn about their situation from their own point of view so they can become more aware of what their rights are and how they can improve their lives, their rights and how they can use their own resources for their empowerment (Giroux 65). Freire wrote Pedagogy of the Oppressed with colonialism and political and cultural freedom in mind. Yet, his ideas have been taken by educators all over the world in order to educate people concerning the importance of interaction and the application of education in their own contexts. His ideas have now been extended and applied in a number of learning contexts and environment. As the process of education continues to be scrutinized all over the world, the validity of Freire’s ideas will be seen as applicable in a number of ways. This time, such application will not be in the realm of colonialism and political freedom, but rather it can be applied in the overall process of educating individuals so they can be trained as knowledgeable and responsible members of their respective societies. Education is an important power that not only developing countries would find useful but developed countries as well in developing their own citizenry.

Police Powers of Arrest - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3389 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Tags: Act Essay Police Essay Did you like this example? Police Powers of Arrest and Detention of Offenders Satisfactory The first police power I will evaluate is the power that custody officers have over detainees. When a police officer arrests someone they will have their reasons for doing so and will have seen or heard what the person has done. Though, when he brings him to the police station the custody officer will see whether the constable has detained the person correctly or not. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Police Powers of Arrest" essay for you Create order He will look into what the detainee has done more thoroughly and give his own verdict on whether he should have been arrested or not. Because the custody officer was not present at the scene or may not have received a first-hand report of the incident he cannot give a biased judgment and as such would work towards having a third party verdict of the detaineeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s guilt or innocence. You could almost say that it is the equivalent of getting a second opinion on a specific case or topic in question. It can be both beneficial to the police as well as the detainee because the custody officer could question the arresting officer on the reasons for arresting the individual and make his judgment based on that. The arrest would then be justified if the custodial officer agrees with the arresting officerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s reasons for arrest. The next power I will be evaluating is the amount of force the police are allowed to use when they are arresting someone suspected of co mmitting or going to commit a crime or offence and when searching premises. I believe the police force that is used against a suspect will probably relate to the force the suspect is using against them. What I mean by this is that if you are very aggressive and try to pick a fight with an arresting officer/s, then they are going to use more force to overpower you, so that they can then arrest you for the offence they suspect you of committing. Whereas, if you are completely compliant with the police, donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t shout abuse at them do everything they are asking you to do, most of the time they wonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t even put handcuffs on you, they would just escort you to the back of their police vehicle. I think the police use the correct amount of force when entering a premise. If you are compliant they will then not use force at all, they would just do the job they were sent there for and be on their way. I also believe they use the right amount of force when raiding someones house where they have reason to believe that drug dealing is taking place. Warrants will be executed under the Misuse of Drugs Act and the police will use police battering rams to hit the door where the locks are so that they can gain entry. Then they would use tactics to scare and detain any suspects in the property. They go in shouting because it puts the suspect on the back foot straight away because it is quite frightening. Not Satisfactory Regular citizens also hold the power to arrest someone who they believe is in the act of committing an indictable offence or even if the person has reasonable grounds to suspect the individual of committing an indictable offence. This is stated in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) under S.24, where it is said that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“anyone who is not a constable may arrest someone without a warrantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  as long as the above conditions are met. In the case if chip shop owner Nicholas Tyers, who along with his son carried out a citizenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s arrest on a 12 year old boy who had damaged his property and spat at a customer the day prior. They had first driven the boy to their home where they then called the police. Their reasoning for this was because, according to Tyers senior, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“nine times out of ten Bridlington Police Station is unmanned and you have to speak to someone on the telephoneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ .[1] They would have thought that calling the police from their home would have been the more efficient method. Though, this was not the case as they were charged with kidnap because the boy had complained to the police that they had not taken him directly to the police station once they had arrested him. What can be said about this case is that the main issue is the clarity and the knowledge of a legally viable citizenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s arrest. Neither of the defendants charged with kidnap had the intention of doing anything of the like to the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"vic timà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, but through their lack of legal knowledge required to carry out a citizenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s arrest within the boundaries of the law they have fallen victim to their own good intentions. It would be unfair to place the blame entirely on the defendants for this mishap, as the smaller details of the law are not well-known to the general public, and as such, may lead to absurd results in terms of verifying the actual crime being committed and by whom. The process of citizenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s arrest is something that would need amending or simplifying because of the above example of Tyers and his son. One key change that could be made is the actual part where the person carrying out the arrest must bring the defendant to the police station and cannot take them anywhere else before that. This is a dangerous rule to have as under immediate circumstances in may not be within the best interest of the person carrying out the arrest to do so, as it may lead to violenc e breaking out or anything of the like. After 6 long months the defendants were cleared of their charges because the judge (John Dowse) deemed the case too trivial and questioned, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“whether or not there are far more serious cases to bring?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . [2] This was largely the correct decision to be made, if not made quickly enough by the courts. Not Satisfactory Under the current legal system if a person being detained or arrested is under the age of 17 their parents or guardians would be notified immediately. Though, in the case of two teenage boys Joe Lawton and Edward Thomber, who were both 17 years old, their parents were not informed as there was no requirement to do so. Both teenagers were treated as adults in custody, but when they were to be charged theyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢d be treated as children. The two of them committed suicide after having been arrested and summoned to court respectively. The parents of both these teenagers were appalled at the wa y their sons had been treated and Mr Lawton (The father of the deceased teenager Joe Lawton) questioned in a statement, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“how can you be an adult one moment and a child the next? That simply isnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t right.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  [3] In response to the fact that he and his wife were not informed of the arrest of their son whom they could have supported emotionally in his time of need, and possibly stopped him from committing suicide. Both sets of parents initiated a petition for a change in the law regarding the age barrier for there being a legally required necessity to inform the parents or guardians of a person arrested or detained. The reasoning behind their petition is a very valid one as anyone with any form of support or emotional backing is more likely to make it through something as serious as a jail sentence or court hearing without resorting to extreme measures such as suicide. Psychology speaking the teenagers may have made their decision to end t heir own lives because of the fear of what their parents may think if they found out, but if they were to be told that everything is alright and they have their parentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s full support the resulting consequences may be different. In accordance to the Home Office, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“every year 75,000 17-year-olds are taken into police custody.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [4] This is a staggering statistic as at that rate, with the law not stating the need to inform their parents or guardians of their arrest or detention, the majority of these young-adults are facing the looming anxiety of it all without any form of support and this could lead to many more tragic situations, such as in the case mentioned above. Personally speaking, I believe that the age barrier should be increased to 17 so that those of that relatively tender age are not exposed to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"adultà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ treatment just yet. Not Satisfactory There are a total of four methods to make a complaint about the police. You can either go to the police station of the police force you have a complaint about and complain directly to a representative, fill out a complaint form from the website of the police force you have a complaint about, complain to a solicitor or even to your local MP (Member of Parliament) who will complain on your behalf, or you could fill in the IPCCà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (Independent Police Complaints Commission) online complaint form and they will send it directly to the police force you are complaining about. For obvious reasons, some of the above ways of complaining are not exactly enticing for someone who has a genuine complaint as they may feel singled-out and uncomfortable complaining directly to an officer in a police station. This cannot be classified as a viable method of complaint as the majority of people would prefer not to complain at all if it means facing up to the people you are complaining about in person. Also, it can be said that some people may not feel safe under the targeted scrutiny of their own local police force after having complained about them and given their name in too. When it comes to dealing with your complaints, whether you tell your local police force verbally or send out a complaint form through the IPCCà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s website, it will still be taken care of by the PCC (Police and Crime Commissioner) for that police force the complaint is being made to. The complaint is then checked through and if something that has been deemed unfair has taken place you will be in line for compensation. Though, one main concern with the person handling the complaint is that they work in that specific police force and that may instil some form of fear in the person doing the complaining as they may then anticipate some form of harm or persecution from their local police force because of their complaint. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Only 10 out of 100 complainants in our interview sample from 3 forces said that they had an y clear idea of how to go about complaining or how the system worked.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [5] This statistic shows how incompetent the police and their local councils have been in terms of addressing to their local towns and cities the steps needed to be taken in order for a formal complaint to be made about the police and their activities. Some could say this isnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t the worst thing in the world for them, as they would have fewer complaints to deal with and cynically speaking, they wouldnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t exactly have much of an incentive to do anything about it. In this instance it could be said that the police are not doing a satisfactory job of offering the public an effective means of complaint because of the sheer amount of people attempting to complain but not knowing how exactly it is done, and the anxiety and worry of angering or provoking the wrath of a local police force if a genuine complaint is made. Satisfactory All communications between a suspect a nd their legal advisor is subject to legal privilege which means that the police or any other legal authority does not have the right to see or hear them. In the case of R v Grant, it was brought to the Court of Appeal to judge as to whether the eavesdropping of the police was unlawful and the information they retained from doing so was to be held as valid in a court of law. They were indeed deemed to be unlawful as they had committed a crime which amounted to a, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“deliberate violation of a suspectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right to legal privilegeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [6]. It was something that went against the justice system entirely and so therefore the information gathered from committing the illegal act was not held to be viable as evidence. Although it is understandable that there should be some form of ruling to stop legal authorities from using confidential information between a suspect and their legal advisor/lawyer, it can also be said that in the eyes of the justice s ystem this is simply providing criminals with more protection than they deserve. If a suspect is in fact innocent then they have barely any reason to actually hide anything from the court. Though, this cannot be said about those who are guilty of the crime they are suspected of doing. Only a guilty party would need to hide details from the legal authorities and as such I believe that them being able to intercede between the suspect and his lawyer is perfectly reasonable because it could be the difference between an innocent man being jailed for life and a guilty man being completely cleared of all charges. In terms of arrest and detention it is only of benefit to the justice system that legal privileges are abolished as the sticky and pedantic rulings on arresting or detaining a suspect can be used against them so nothing can be said to or from the solicitor or lawyer without the legal authorities being present and listening in. All in all, Ià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢d say that the p rocess of arrest and detention could be vastly improved and simplified if the law on legal privileges were to be abolished. The justice system would benefit greatly and it would more or less ensure that innocent people are set free and guilty people are put behind bars or given their sentence. The abolition of the right to silence is one that has been going back and forth between representatives of senior judges, the police and the criminal Bar. It is something that can easily be deemed a breach of a personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s basic right to silence even when unfairly pressured into doing otherwise, whilst also exposing the fact that said people have not responded to legal authorities to the jury and judge hearing their trial. The right to silence is widely criticized by the likes of major politicians such as Douglas Hurd who questioned whether, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“it was really in the interests of justice that experienced criminals should be able to refuse to answer all police que stions secure in the knowledge that a jury will never hear of it?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [7] This is a very commendable thing to ask as guilty parties can stay silent when being questioned by the authorities and whilst with their lawyers they may come up with some form of defence to protect themselves from punishment. This is obviously not the outcome that the justice system would like to achieve from allowing this right to continue on. Whilst the issue may raise questions on both sides of the argument, it also divides the legal authorities such as the lawyers from the judges. It could be said that the debate would be more efficiently argued with an objective view on the positives as well as the negatives with regards to keeping this right in place. The argument for keeping the right intact is that it would incorrect to assume that only a guilty party chooses to be silent when questioned. There are many other reasons as to why someone may choose to be silent, such as shock or confusion , in order to protect someone else from harm, or even out of pride as to the fact that theyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢re being suspected of a crime. It would be unfair to group together a guilty criminal with all of the above people in the same boat and treat them equally. Whilst the majority of people choose not to be quiet, as shown in one survey, as low as 4% of people actually do, though, the right itself remains a key part in ensuring that police officers cannot apply unjust amounts of pressure onto the suspects in order for them to say something incriminating. Personally, I believe that it should be kept as a right, but the fact that they have remained silent in the instance should be allowed to be brought to the attention of the jury when determining whether the defendant is innocent or guilty. The UK DNA database is currently the largest in terms of percentage per population size at a whopping 10%. Second being Austria with only 1% of their total populationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s D NA samples being stored. These figures are worrying for the British public as there could be growing fears of privacy breaches by the government and the legal authorities in charge of said samples. It is certainly unethical to keep the DNA of a completely innocent person for no apparent reason besides having it there if need be. This is definitely something that has been fought against and petitioned over by the Liberal Democrats when the coalition government came into fruition. They have stated that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“whilst DNA is a vital tool in the fight against crime, there is no legitimate reason for the police to retain for life the DNA records of innocent peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [8] and that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“nearly 150,000 children under the age of 16 have their details on the database.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [9] The law on the retention of DNA samples is reforming and the national database has been ordered to destroy as many as 7 million DNA samples because of the lack of necessity in keeping them stored away. Especially considering the sheer amount of them having been taken from innocent people who have not done anything to require their DNA be kept on a database. This is also the case with people who are detained but are not charged with a crime or an offence. Thought it can be said that the National DNA Database does have a major role in solving crimes and putting guilty parties behind bars, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“prior to the adoption of the Protection of Freedoms Act, a massive expansion in the number of individuals on the Database did not lead to any noticeable increase in the likelihood of identifying a suspectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [10] which shows that the vast majority of retained DNA samples are in no way helping to benefit the justice system and serve no purpose in being kept any longer. Many reforms have been made over the years, especially in the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 which requires the destruction of DNA samples and the removal of most innocen t peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s DNA profiles. However, there are still some issues that have yet to be addressed such as: the indefinite retention of the DNA profiles of children who have committed more than one minor offence; amongst a few others. The law on DNA sample retention has gotten a lot more reasonable and relevant in comparison to the past but there are still many changes and discrepancies to be made and adhered to in order for a fair and just DNA Database to be kept. Whilst seeking to protect the rights of the majority, the police at times infringe certain individual rights, such as the right to privacy or to freedom of movement also known as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"stop and searchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. However, they are only permitted to do so if the infringement is reasonable, proportionate and lawful. Yet the evidence shows that, on the contrary, some police forces are using their powers disproportionately suggesting they are stopping and searching individuals in a way that is di scriminatory, inefficient, and a waste of public money. This is despite the evidence from both the investigations of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Staffordshire and Clevelandà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ which have proven that a reduction in the use of stop and search can go hand in hand with a reduction in the overall levels of crime. [1] Powers of Citizenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Arrest hand-out [2] Powers of Citizenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Arrest hand-out [3] Detention of Young People hand-out [4] Detention of Young People hand-out [5] A study of the Police Complaints System, Maguire and Corbett [6] R v Grant à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Legal Privilege [7] Archive, 21 October 1988: Editorial: New law will erode right to silence hand-out. [8] Police DNA Database hand-out [9] Police DNA Database hand-out [10] Police DNA Database hand-out